The God Particle

Jack Dikian

October 2011

The Higgs boson is sometimes referred to as "the God particle" after the title of Leon Lederman's book, The God Particle: If the Universe Is the Answer, What Is the Question?

The Standard Model of particle physics is a theory concerning the electromagnetic, weak, and strong nuclear interactions, which mediate the dynamics of the known subatomic particles. The Standard Model gives us a framework for our understanding of the fundamental particles and forces of nature.

A theory to answer why particles have the masses they do or why they have any mass at all, however, isn’t so straightforward. Back in the early 60’s Peter Higgs proposed, the idea that space is permeated by a field, similar in some ways to the electromagnetic field. As particles move through space they travel through this field, and if they interact with it they acquire what appears to be mass. The Higgs boson is thought to give all matter mass.

This is similar to the action of viscous forces felt by particles moving through any thick liquid. The larger the interaction of the particles with the field, the more mass they appear to have. Thus the existence of this field is essential in Higg's hypothesis for the production of the mass of particles. As well as possibly explaining how particles receive their mass, some think it could also explain how the universe got its shape.

A theory put forward by researchers at Switzerland's École polytechnique fédérale de Lausanne argue that the Higgs boson might allow us to account for inflation, the otherwise unexplained process in which the early universe grew by a factor of at least 10^26 in an instant.

The Higgs boson is, however, the only elementary particle in the Standard Model that has not yet been observed in particle physics experiments.

Many universe theory explains a lot of things

Jack Dikian

September 2011

Inflation theory is the theorized extremely rapid expansion of the early universe by a factor of at least 10^78 in volume. The inflationary epoch lasted from 10^36 seconds after the Big Bang to approximately 10^33 seconds. This is a mind-boggling small period of time. It’s 0.000000000000000000000000000000000000 of a second after the big bang.

There are a number of variants to inflation theory or inflation models. An interesting model is the eternal inflation, which says (roughly speaking) that shortly after the Big Bang space-time expanded at different rates in different regions of the early universe, giving rise to bubble universes (that may function with their own separate laws of physics.

Our universe might just be one of many. While the concept is bizarre, it's a possibility, according to scientists who have devised the first test to investigate the idea at Imperial College London. The basic premise of the study is to look for collisions between universes by examining tell tale signs left behind in the cosmic microwave background radiation. This is the diffuse (thermal radiation) light left over from the Big Bang and pervades our universe.

Researchers used data from the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) identifying four regions in the universe as promising candidates. However, statistical analyses suggested these patterns were likely to be random, resembling the circular shapes of collisions simply by coincidence. The European Space Agency's Planck satellite data set to be released in 2013, and the researchers plan to look again, surveying in particular the four areas of interest from this study.

A researcher from the University of British Columbia in Canada, agrees that the present data from WMAP is not likely to be precise enough to make a definitive statement, also excited by what the more detailed data from the Planck satellite might revel.

The obvious benefit that a multi-verse theory provides is an explanation for the strange coincidences in our own universe. Many of the fundamental constants such as the strength of gravity and the speed of light, seem perfectly calibrated to produce a universe in which galaxies, stars, planets and even life can form.

The scientists detailed their study in two research papers published recently in the journals Physical Review Letters and Physical Review D.

We are living but on a spec of dust looking out into the darkness

Jack Dikian

September 2011

The more I think about just how much we have been able to infer about the universe we live in the more amazing it all seems. I mean, here we are living on an unassuming rock orbiting a star near the outskirts of a galaxy. Our galaxy is estimated to contain 200 to 400 billion stars. Current estimates guess that there are 100 to 200 billion galaxies in the Universe. The universe is vast and we are living but on a spec of dust looking out into the darkness, looking back in time, and trying to make sense of it all.

The WMAP Explorer mission that launched June 2001 to make fundamental measurements of cosmology is analogies to a trapdoor spider coming out of its silk-lined burrow to examine the perimeter surrounding its burrow before it goes back inside to think about how might other terrains be like, what kind of soils, how small puddles of water be compared to vast oceans, and so on and so forth.

But, that’s exactly what the WMAP has been able to achieve. It has been able to study the properties of our universe as a whole. WMAP has been stunningly successful too, producing our new Standard Model of Cosmology. The 7-year data provide compelling evidence that the large-scale fluctuations are slightly more intense than the small-scale ones, a subtle prediction of many inflation models.

One of the problems the Big Bang theory was not able to explain is the horizon problem. Distant regions of space in opposite directions of the sky are so far apart that, assuming standard Big Bang expansion, they could never have been in causal contact with each other. This light travel time between them exceeds the age of the universe. Yet the uniformity of the cosmic microwave background temperature tells us that these regions must have been in contact with each other in the past.

The Inflation Theory, developed by Alan Guth, Andrei Linde, Paul Steinhardt, and Andy Albrecht, offer a solution to this and several other open questions in cosmology. Inflation supposes a burst of exponential expansion in the early universe, assuming distant regions of the universe were actually much closer together prior to Inflation than they would have been with only standard Big Bang expansion. Thus, such regions could have been in causal contact prior to Inflation and could have attained a uniform temperature.

Other reading

Alan H. Guth & Paul J.Steinhardt, "The Inflationary Universe", Scientific American, May 1984.

Andrei Linde, "The Self-Reproducing Inflationary Universe", Scientific American, November 1994.

Scott Watson, "An Exposition on Inflationary Cosmology", WWWarticle, 2000.

Alan H. Guth, "The Inflationary Universe : The Quest for a New Theory of Cosmic Origins", 1998.

First Light, God's handiwork in Creation and the Big Bang

Jack Dikian

July 2011

Ever since I was a young boy I’ve been fascinated by the biblical statement "Let there be light" (Genesis 1:3). I still remember the curiosity and what must have been a child's wide eye - learning the scripture at school and church.

Much later I became interested in cosmology theory, Big Bangs, string landscapes and all the time holding on to my earlier notions of a first dawn, a first light.

Much has been written (speculated rather) about how the universe might have unfolded a few seconds after the big bang. Consider the Planck epoch (up to 10–43 seconds after the Big Bang) dealing with an unimaginably small period of time after the big bang where, perhaps, forces as we know them today might have been indistinguishable (viz a viz unification). Or consider the Inflationary epoch, a period between 10–36 seconds and 10–32 seconds after the Big Bang where it’s thought the universe went through rapid expansion and provided for the early seeds of structure to be laid down.

It isn’t until the Photon epoch however (between 10 seconds and 380,000 years after the Big Bang) when neutral atoms begin to form and the universe begins to became transparent to visible light.

First Light

So the early universe was dense, hot, and shared little resemblance to what we have today. Photons would be reflected and scattered randomly in a largely "opaque" universe. As the universe continues to cool over the first 380,000 years or so, electrons and nuclei began to form atoms and photons are no longer strongly interacting with stable atoms. At this point photons begin to travel through the universe more freely as the universe became transparent to light, and so there is light.

Interestingly, these photons are still traveling today and can be detected as the "cosmic microwave background radiation”. Almost 1% of the static we notice on our television screens when we are switching between channels (all those in-between channels) is remarkably the noise of the early universe - the after glow.

Einstein's Biggest Blunder

Jack Dikian

May 2011

A team of planetary scientists using the Anglo-Australian Telescope contributed to the mapping of galaxies over a volume of the Universe and has shown that dark energy responsible for expanding the universe is real and not a mistake by Einstein viz a viz the cosmological constant.

When George Gamow was discussing cosmological problems with Einstein, he (Einstein) had remarked that the introduction of the cosmological term was the biggest blunder of his life.

Einstein introduced his cosmological constant it into his general theory of relativity almost as a last resort wanting to force his theory to yield a static universe as he had thought the universe to be.

We know now the universe is not static and is expanding at an accelerating rate, just as his original field equations were predicting. Einstein was never comfortable with the [constant] and a clue is in his 1917 paper which ends with

“It is to be emphasized, however, that a positive curvature of space is given by our results, even if the supplementary term [cosmological constant] is not introduced. That term is necessary only for the purpose of making possible a quasi-static distribution of matter, as required by the fact of the small velocities of the stars”.

The survey of 200,000 galaxies by an international team, led by Chris Blake of Swinburne University, took four years to complete, aimed to measure the properties of "dark energy" — the concept of which was revived in the late 1990s when astronomers began to realize the universe was expanding at an accelerating rate.

The acceleration was a shocking discovery, indicating the universe is filled with a new kind of energy that is causing it to expand at an increasing speed.

Black Holes Older Than The Universe

Jack Dikian

May 2011

According to the work by Professor Bernard Carr from Queen Mary University in London and Professor Alan Coley from Canada's Dalhousie University published on the pre-press website arXiv.org, some black holes may be primordial. That is some black holes bounce between a contracting and expanding universes.

Coley and Carr speculate that primordial black holes could survive as separate entities and from a previous epoch (assuming of course that a bounce occurs at all and survives singularities).

According to general relativity, the initial state of the universe, at the beginning of the Big Bang, was a singularity - a point in space-time at which the space-time curvature becomes infinite and much of the physics we know breaks down.

Even with the success of quantum mechanics we don't have a good theory of quantum gravity.

Still, such a speculation, as well as pushing the boundaries of our current theories, bounces in the universe may also allow for differences in the fundamental constants of nature such as (say) the speed of light.

I Am Convinced God Does Not Play Dice

Jack Dikian

March 2011

Introduction

The Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics proposes, generally, that the outcome of any measurement cannot be measured with certainty. This leads to the situation where measurements of a property performed on two identical systems can give different answers.

However, can a deeper reality, hidden beneath quantum mechanics, described by a more fundamental theory predict the outcome of measurement with certainty. Einstein, a proponent of a deeper reality (hidden variables) hidden famously insisted that, "I am convinced God does not play dice”.

Quantum mechanics puzzle

Quantum mechanics creates the puzzling situation in which a measurement of one system can "poison" the measurement of the other system, no matter what the distance between them. One could imagine the two measurements were so far apart in space that special relativity would prohibit any influence of one measurement over the other.

For example, say, in a neutral-Pion decay, where two photons travel some light years apart – if the spin of one photon is measured, quantum mechanic suggests that that measurement instantaneously forces the second photon into a state of well-defined spin - even though it is light years away from the first.

Einstein, Podolsky, and Rosen (EPR) argued that elements of reality must be added to quantum mechanics and postulated that the existence of unknown properties should account for the discrepancy – that there is a deeper reality.

A conundrum

How do we reconcile the fact that the second photon "knows" that the spin of the first photo has been measured, even though they are separated by light years of space and far too little time has passed for information to have traveled to it according to special relativity?

We can accept the postulates of quantum mechanics its seemingly uncomfortable coexistence with special relativity, or we may believe that quantum mechanics is not complete: